Empress Dowager Cixi, born in 1835 as Yehenara, remains one of the most influential and controversial figures in Chinese history. She governed China from behind the scenes for nearly half a century, wielding significant power during the Qing Dynasty. Her reign, while marked by political upheaval and reform, was also plagued with scandal, intrigue, and accusations of corruption and manipulation. Cixi’s leadership, which often saw her making decisions for emperors who were either too young or too weak to rule, transformed the course of Chinese history, both for better and for worse.

In this article, we will explore the life and rule of Empress Dowager Cixi, examining her rise to power, the major political events and reforms during her reign, and the controversies that still surround her legacy today.

1. Early Life and Rise to Power

Empress Dowager Cixi was born Yehenara on November 29, 1835, into the Manchu aristocracy. Her family was part of the ruling class of the Qing Dynasty, which had been in power since the 17th century. Cixi’s early life was relatively modest, and she entered the imperial palace as a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, who reigned from 1850 to 1861.

Cixi was chosen to be part of the emperor’s harem at the age of 16, and she eventually rose to prominence due to her beauty, intelligence, and strong personality. She gave birth to a son, who would later become the Tongzhi Emperor. However, after the Xianfeng Emperor died in 1861, the young Tongzhi, who was only five years old at the time, ascended to the throne, making Cixi the empress dowager and one of the most powerful women in the empire.

Although Cixi was technically a regent for her son, she quickly took control of the imperial court. With the assistance of a faction of powerful court officials, Cixi maneuvered to gain the upper hand, and she effectively ruled China through her son and later through the Guangxu Emperor, whom she had selected as her successor.

2. The Regent Who Ruled an Empire

Cixi’s political prowess and her ability to outmaneuver rivals ensured her dominance in the imperial court. During the early years of her regency, Cixi had to contend with internal political strife, as several factions vied for control of the empire. However, Cixi’s astute political acumen, combined with her strategic alliances and careful manipulation, enabled her to consolidate power.

The Xinyou Coup (1861)

Cixi’s rise to power was not without conflict. In 1861, a group of court officials known as the “Eight Regents” attempted to oust Cixi and take control of the regency for themselves. This coup, known as the Xinyou Coup, was a direct challenge to Cixi’s authority and the legitimacy of her rule.

However, Cixi proved to be a master of court politics. She was able to rally loyal allies, including key military officials, and staged a counter-coup. Within a few days, Cixi had turned the tables, and the would-be usurpers were either imprisoned or executed. This event marked the beginning of her long and unchallenged rule over the Qing Dynasty.

The Qing Court and the Western Powers

Cixi’s reign occurred during a time of immense political change and external pressure on China. In the mid-19th century, the Qing Dynasty was increasingly threatened by Western powers, which had begun to establish a presence in China through trade, military intervention, and diplomacy. During this period, the British, French, and other foreign nations imposed several “Unequal Treaties” on China, leading to the loss of territories and significant economic strain.

Cixi had to navigate the delicate relationship between China and the Western powers, and her policies often reflected the tension between defending Chinese sovereignty and dealing with foreign influences. She initially resisted Western influence, preferring to rely on traditional Chinese values, but as the pressure from foreign powers mounted, she recognized the need for reform and compromise. This shift in attitude would have lasting implications for China’s development during the late Qing period.

3. The Challenges of Reform

As the Qing Dynasty faced growing internal and external challenges, Empress Dowager Cixi began to adopt reformist policies in an attempt to modernize China. However, her approach to reform was often reluctant, and the reforms were inconsistent.

The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895)

In the aftermath of the Second Opium War (1856–1860), the Qing Dynasty realized that China had to modernize in order to defend itself against foreign powers. The Self-Strengthening Movement, which aimed to promote military and industrial modernization, gained traction during Cixi’s early regency. Cixi supported the establishment of modern arsenals, the development of railroads, and the expansion of China’s military capabilities. She also encouraged the study of Western technologies and techniques.

However, Cixi’s commitment to reform was often ambivalent. She supported modernization in some areas, particularly in the military, but she remained cautious when it came to political and social changes. She was deeply conservative in many respects, believing that maintaining China’s traditional values and Confucian principles was vital for the survival of the empire. As a result, her reforms were often slow, fragmented, and inadequate to address the deeper structural problems within the empire.

The Hundred Days’ Reform (1898)

One of the most significant reform efforts during Cixi’s reign was the Hundred Days’ Reform of 1898, a series of radical changes proposed by the Guangxu Emperor. The reformers sought to modernize China by introducing constitutional government, expanding education, and creating a more efficient bureaucracy. The reform movement was led by young officials and intellectuals who believed that China needed to catch up with the Western powers.

However, Empress Dowager Cixi opposed many of the proposed reforms. She believed that they would undermine her authority and destabilize the Qing government. In a dramatic political maneuver, she launched a coup and placed the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest, effectively ending the reform movement. This event is often seen as a turning point in Cixi’s reign, as it marked her rejection of significant reforms and her decision to maintain the status quo.

4. Controversies and Scandals

Empress Dowager Cixi’s reign was rife with controversy, particularly in relation to her personal power and decision-making. Many historians have criticized her for her manipulative tactics and for prioritizing her own power over the welfare of the empire. Some even accused her of being a power-hungry and ruthless ruler who sacrificed the future of China for her own political gains.

The Death of the Tongzhi Emperor

One of the most scandalous events during Cixi’s regency was the mysterious death of her son, the Tongzhi Emperor. In 1875, Tongzhi died suddenly at the age of 18, under suspicious circumstances. Some historians believe that he was poisoned, possibly by palace officials who saw him as a weak ruler. Others speculate that Cixi may have had a hand in his death, though the true cause of his demise remains a subject of debate.

After the Tongzhi Emperor’s death, Cixi selected her nephew, the Guangxu Emperor, to succeed him. This decision further solidified her power and influence, as the young Guangxu Emperor was entirely dependent on her guidance. Critics of Cixi argue that she deliberately kept the emperors under her control to maintain her dominance in the imperial court.

The Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901)

Another major controversy during Cixi’s reign was her involvement in the Boxer Rebellion, a nationalist and anti-foreign movement that erupted in China at the end of the 19th century. The Boxer Rebellion was led by a group of Chinese peasants who were angered by foreign influence and the presence of foreign missionaries in China. Cixi initially supported the Boxer movement, hoping that it would help drive foreign powers out of China.

However, the Boxer Rebellion ultimately led to a military conflict between China and the foreign powers, including the British, French, Germans, and Japanese. In 1901, after the defeat of the Boxers, China was forced to pay large indemnities and make significant concessions to the foreign powers. Cixi’s support for the Boxers, and the resulting humiliation of China, further tarnished her reputation.

5. Cixi’s Legacy

Empress Dowager Cixi died on November 15, 1908, just a day after the death of the Guangxu Emperor, who had been her puppet ruler for much of her regency. Despite her death, Cixi’s influence over China’s fate continued to be felt for years. She left behind an empire in decline, weakened by internal strife, foreign invasions, and corruption. After her death, the Qing Dynasty continued to deteriorate, and in 1911, the dynasty was overthrown by the Xinhai Revolution, leading to the establishment of the Republic of China.

Cixi’s legacy remains a subject of intense debate. Some view her as a cunning and effective ruler who managed to keep the Qing Dynasty afloat during one of its most turbulent periods. Others see her as a conservative and self-interested leader whose resistance to reform ultimately contributed to the downfall of the Qing Dynasty. Regardless of one’s perspective, it is undeniable that Empress Dowager Cixi was one of the most powerful women in history, and her rule left an indelible mark on China’s political landscape.

6. Conclusion

Empress Dowager Cixi’s reign was one of power, intrigue, and controversy. Through her sharp political instincts, she rose from a concubine to become the de facto ruler of China for nearly half a century. She faced immense challenges both domestically and internationally, and her decisions shaped

the course of Chinese history.

While Cixi is often criticized for her reluctance to implement meaningful reforms, she was also a pragmatic leader who tried to balance tradition with the pressures of modernization. Her legacy is one of complexity—she was a ruler who both defended the Qing Dynasty and allowed it to crumble under her watch. Yet, despite the criticisms, her power and influence continue to be remembered as a defining feature of late Qing China.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s story is not just one of power but also of survival, as she navigated the treacherous waters of court politics, foreign intervention, and reform. Her name will forever be associated with the rise and fall of the Qing Dynasty, and her legacy will continue to provoke debate for generations to come.